Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Eiman Ghaffarpasand, M.D. [2]
Abbreviations: ABG= Arterial blood gas, ANP= Atrial natriuretic peptide, BNP= Brain natriuretic peptide, CBC= Complete blood count, COPD= Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, CRP= C-reactive protein, CT= Computed tomography, CXR= Chest X-ray, DVT= Deep vein thrombosis, ESR= Erythrocyte sedimentation rate, HRCT= High Resolution CT, IgE= Immunoglobulin E, LDH= Lactate dehydrogenase, PCWP= Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure.
| Diseases
|
Cyanosis
|
Clinical manifestations
|
Para-clinical findings
|
Gold standard
|
Additional findings
|
| Symptoms
|
Physical examination
|
| Lab Findings
|
Imaging
|
| Peripheral
|
Central
|
Dyspnea
|
Fever
|
Chest pain
|
Clubbing
|
Peripheral edema
|
Auscultation
|
CBC
|
ABG
|
Electrolytes
|
Other
|
X-ray
|
CT scan
|
Other
|
| Pulmonary diseases
|
Parenchymal disorder
|
Alveolitis[1]
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
–
|
Wheeze, Crackles
|
Leukocytosis, Eosinophilia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
↑ESR, ↑CRP
|
Scattered opacities, Fine reticulation
|
Homogeneous ground-glass opacity
|
–
|
HRCT PLUS Clinical findings
|
Malaise, Chills, Headache
|
| Cystic fibrosis[2]
|
+
|
–
|
+
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
–
|
Wheeze, Crackles
|
Normal
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Increased sweat chloride
|
Sweat chloride test
|
Hyperinflation, Nodules
|
Peribronchial thickening, Bronchiectasis
|
–
|
Sweat chloride test
|
Absent vas deferens
|
| COPD
(Severe emphysema)[3]
|
+
|
–
|
+
|
+/-
|
+
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
Reduced breath sounds, Wheeze, Inspiratory crackles
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Normal
|
Alpha 1-antitrypsin test
|
Elongated heart, Flattened diaphragms, Prominent hilar vasculature
|
Bullae
|
–
|
HRCT
|
Pulmonary hypertension, Right heart failure
|
| Cardiac diseases
|
Congenital disorders
|
Atrioventricular canal defect[4]
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
–
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
–
|
Wheezing,Holosystolic or systolic ejection murmur
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Pulse oximetry
|
Cardiomegaly, Increased pulmonary vascular markings
|
Normal
|
Echocardiography, MRI
|
Echocardiography
|
Tachypnea, Lack of appetite, Pale skin color, Excessive sweating
|
| Vascular disease
|
Arterial disorders
|
Acrocyanosis[5]
|
+
|
–
|
+/-
|
–
|
–
|
+
|
–
|
Normal
|
Anemia, Leukocytosis
|
↓O2, ↑CO2
|
Hypercalcemia
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
–
|
Clinical findings
|
Brittle nails, Telangiectasia
|
| Arterial embolism[6]
|
+
|
–
|
+
|
–
|
+
|
+/-
|
–
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Hyperkalemia
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Normal
|
Normal
|
Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE)
|
Clinical findings
|
Headache, Decreased sensation
|
| Venous disorders
|
Superior vena cava obstruction[7]
|
+
|
–
|
+/-
|
–
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
Normal
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2
|
Normal
|
↓PaO2 in pulse oximetry
|
Superior mediastinal widening, Right hilar prominence
|
Thrombosis, Mediastinal mass or lymphadenopathy, Associated lung mass
|
–
|
Chest CT scan
|
Headache,
Facial swelling
|
| Hematologic diseases
|
Polycythemia[8]
|
+
|
+
|
+
|
+/-
|
+/-
|
+
|
–
|
Normal
|
↑RBC, ↑WBC, ↑HGB, ↑Plt
|
↓O2
|
Hyperkalemia
|
↑Leukocyte alkaline phosphatase, ↑Ferritin, ↑Erythropoietin
|
AVM, COPD, pulmonary hypertension
|
Normal
|
Abdominal ultrasound or renal vascular studies for ruling out renal artery stenosis
|
RBC mass (RCM) and plasma volume measurement
|
Itchiness, Headache. Dizziness. Blurred vision
|
| Miscellaneous
|
High altitude exposure[9]
|
+/-
|
+
|
+
|
–
|
+/-
|
+
|
–
|
Wheezing
|
Polycythemia
|
↓O2, ↓CO2, Respiratory alkalosis
|
Hyperphosphatemia, Hypercalcemia, Hyponatremia, Hypokalemia, Hypomagnesemia
|
Decreased bicarbonate
|
Central interstitial edema
|
Pulmonary consolidation
|
–
|
Hypoxic challenge test
|
Dizziness, Coma, Death
|
References
- ↑ Lee JS, Im JG, Ahn JM, Kim YM, Han MC (August 1992). “Fibrosing alveolitis: prognostic implication of ground-glass attenuation at high-resolution CT”. Radiology. 184 (2): 451–4. doi:10.1148/radiology.184.2.1620846. PMID 1620846.
- ↑ “Cystic fibrosis – Genetics Home Reference”.
- ↑ Qureshi H, Sharafkhaneh A, Hanania NA (2014). “Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations: latest evidence and clinical implications”. Ther Adv Chronic Dis. 5 (5): 212–27. doi:10.1177/2040622314532862. PMC 4131503. PMID 25177479.
- ↑ Macris MP, Ott DA, Cooley DA (1992). “Complete atrioventricular canal defect: surgical considerations”. Tex Heart Inst J. 19 (3): 239–43. PMC 326195. PMID 15227445.
- ↑ Das S, Maiti A (2013). “Acrocyanosis: an overview”. Indian J Dermatol. 58 (6): 417–20. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.119946. PMC 3827510. PMID 24249890.
- ↑ Lyaker MR, Tulman DB, Dimitrova GT, Pin RH, Papadimos TJ (2013). “Arterial embolism”. Int J Crit Illn Inj Sci. 3 (1): 77–87. doi:10.4103/2229-5151.109429. PMC 3665125. PMID 23724391.
- ↑ Cohen R, Mena D, Carbajal-Mendoza R, Matos N, Karki N (2008). “Superior vena cava syndrome: A medical emergency?”. Int J Angiol. 17 (1): 43–6. PMC 2728369. PMID 22477372.
- ↑ Spivak JL (February 2002). “The optimal management of polycythaemia vera”. Br. J. Haematol. 116 (2): 243–54. PMID 11841424.
- ↑ Parati G, Agostoni P, Basnyat B, Bilo G, Brugger H, Coca A, Festi L, Giardini G, Lironcurti A, Luks AM, Maggiorini M, Modesti PA, Swenson ER, Williams B, Bärtsch P, Torlasco C (January 2018). “Clinical recommendations for high altitude exposure of individuals with pre-existing cardiovascular conditions”. Eur. Heart J. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehx720. PMID 29340578.
