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Health Dictionary

Reliable, easy-to-read patient information on common medical conditions β€” written in plain language, free of jargon, and grounded in current evidence. Browse the most frequent diagnoses, understand what they mean for everyday life, and learn which steps and questions help you have a focused conversation with your doctor.

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Arteriovenous fistulae

Introduction

Overview

Overview

An arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is an abnormal connection or passageway between an artery and a vein. It may be congenital, surgically created for hemodialysis treatment, or acquired due to a pathologic process, such as trauma or erosion of an arterial aneurysm. These communications can occur at any point in the vascular system; varying in size, length, location, and number.

Historical Perspective

Historical Perspective

Classification

Classification

Pathophysiology

Pathophysiology

Clinical Features

Clinical Features

Differentiating Arteriovenous Fistula (AVF) from other Conditions

Differentiating Arteriovenous Fistula (AVF) from other Conditions

Epidemiology and Demographics

Epidemiology and Demographics

  • From 1965-1992, the incidence was estimated to be 1.84 cases per 100,000 individuals.
  • From 1985-1992, the incidence was estimated to be 2.75 cases per 100,000 individuals.
  • On January 1, 1990, the prevalence of identified cases was 19.0 per 100,000 individuals.[31]

Age

Gender

Race

Risk Factors

Risk Factors

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Natural History, Complications and Prognosis

Arteriovenous fistulas created for hemodialysis are subject to complications related to chronic high-flow states, repeated cannulation, and altered regional and systemic hemodynamics. These complications may occur immediately after access creation or develop progressively over months to years.[123][124]


Key hemodialysis-related complications include:

  • Access-related hand ischemia (dialysis access steal syndrome) Distal extremity ischemia caused by diversion of arterial blood into the fistula, ranging from mild coolness and paresthesia to rest pain, ulceration, and tissue loss. Risk is increased with brachial artery–based inflow, diabetes mellitus, peripheral vascular disease, and high access flow.[124][125][126]
  • Ischemic monomelic neuropathy A rare but severe complication occurring within hours after fistula creation, characterized by intense pain and global motor and sensory deficits despite preserved distal pulses. Immediate fistula ligation is required to prevent permanent neurologic injury.[127][128]
  • Aneurysmal degeneration Progressive dilation of the venous outflow segment due to repeated cannulation and outflow stenosis, which may lead to skin thinning, ulceration, bleeding, and difficulty with cannulation.[129][130][131]
  • Pseudoaneurysm formation Focal disruption of the vessel wall related to repeated needle puncture, with risk of rupture and hemorrhage.[131][132]
  • Infection Although less common than in arteriovenous grafts, fistula infections may occur and can progress to bacteremia or endocarditis, particularly in the presence of skin breakdown or aneurysmal change.[133]
  • High-output heart failure Chronic high-flow fistulas may reduce systemic vascular resistance and increase cardiac output, leading to ventricular dilation and heart failure, particularly in patients with preexisting cardiac disease.[134][135]


Prognosis of an arteriovenous fistula (AVF) is dependent on the system involved with many congenital fistulae undergoing regression and large fistulae may progress to cardiac decompensation and death.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis

Diagnostic Criteria

Symptoms

Physical Examination

Laboratory Findings

Imaging Findings

Other Diagnostic Studies

Treatment

Treatment

Medical Therapy

Surgery

Prevention

References

References

  1. ↑ Khodadad G (January 1973). “Arteriovenous malformations of the scalp”. Ann. Surg. 177 (1): 79–85. PMCΒ 1355509. PMIDΒ 4682507.
  2. ↑ Liu J, Shimada Y (2014). “A Case of Intractable Left Forearm Congenital Arteriovenous Fistula Ending with Amputation: Importance of New Medical Information Obtained via the Internet”. J Rural Med. 9 (1): 37–9. doi:10.2185/jrm.2878. PMCΒ 4310049. PMIDΒ 25650050.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Yater WM (January 1928). “ACQUIRED ARTERIOVENOUS FISTULA”. Ann. Surg. 87 (1): 19–31. PMCΒ 1398373. PMIDΒ 17865813.
  4. ↑ Olivecrona, Herbert (1957). Congenital arteriovenous aneurysms of the carotid and vertebral arterial systems. Berlin: Springer. ISBNΒ 9783540022046.
  5. ↑ Albeyoglu S, Aldag M, Ciloglu U, Sargin M, Oz TK, Kutlu H, Dagsali S (2017). “Coronary Arteriovenous Fistulas in Adult Patients: Surgical Management and Outcomes”. Braz J Cardiovasc Surg. 32 (1): 15–21. doi:10.21470/1678-9741-2017-0005. PMCΒ 5382904. PMIDΒ 28423125.
  6. ↑ Lim WH, Kang SH, Jeon K, Cho I, Kim KH, Hwang SW, Kim HK, Sohn DW (September 2009). “Asymptomatic Right Coronary Artery-to-Pulmonary Artery Fistula Incidentally Detected by Transthoracic Echocardiography”. J Cardiovasc Ultrasound. 17 (3): 106–9. doi:10.4250/jcu.2009.17.3.106. PMCΒ 2889379. PMIDΒ 20661326.
  7. ↑ Jang SN, Her SH, Do KR, Kim JS, Yoon HJ, Lee JM, Jin SW (December 2008). “A case of congenital bilateral coronary-to-right ventricle fistula coexisting with variant angina”. Korean J. Intern. Med. 23 (4): 216–8. doi:10.3904/kjim.2008.23.4.216. PMCΒ 2687685. PMIDΒ 19119260.
  8. ↑ Robbs JV, Carrim AA, Kadwa AM, Mars M (September 1994). “Traumatic arteriovenous fistula: experience with 202 patients”. Br J Surg. 81 (9): 1296–9. PMIDΒ 7953391.
  9. ↑ Nagpal K, Ahmed K, Cuschieri R (2008). “Diagnosis and management of acute traumatic arteriovenous fistula”. Int. J. Angiol. 17 (4): 214–6. PMCΒ 2728918. PMIDΒ 22477453.
  10. ↑ Laberge JM (December 2004). “Interventional management of renal transplant arteriovenous fistula”. Semin Intervent Radiol. 21 (4): 239–46. doi:10.1055/s-2004-861558. PMCΒ 3036239. PMIDΒ 21331135.
  11. ↑ Abassi ZA, Winaver J, Hoffman A (October 2003). “Large A-V fistula: pathophysiological consequences and therapeutic perspectives”. Curr Vasc Pharmacol. 1 (3): 347–54. PMIDΒ 15320481.
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Soumer K, Benomrane S, Derbel B, Laribi J, Benmrad M, Elleuch N, Kalfat T, Khayati A (February 2015). “Popliteal pseudoaneurysm and arteriovenous fistula after acupuncture”. J Mal Vasc. 40 (1): 58–62. doi:10.1016/j.jmv.2014.11.001. PMIDΒ 25623503.
  13. ↑ Spetzler RF, Hargraves RW, McCormick PW, Zabramski JM, Flom RA, Zimmerman RS (June 1992). “Relationship of perfusion pressure and size to risk of hemorrhage from arteriovenous malformations”. J. Neurosurg. 76 (6): 918–23. doi:10.3171/jns.1992.76.6.0918. PMIDΒ 1588424.
  14. ↑ Zamani H, Meragi M, Arabi Moghadam MY, Alizadeh B, Babazadeh K, Mokhtari-Esbuie F (2015). “Clinical presentation of coronary arteriovenous fistula according to age and anatomic orientation”. Caspian J Intern Med. 6 (2): 108–12. PMCΒ 4478461. PMIDΒ 26221510.
  15. ↑ Sapin P, Frantz E, Jain A, Nichols TC, Dehmer GJ (March 1990). “Coronary artery fistula: an abnormality affecting all age groups”. Medicine (Baltimore). 69 (2): 101–13. PMIDΒ 2319939.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Mise N, Uchida L, Tanaka M, Tanaka S, Nakajima H, Sugimoto T (October 2011). “Acute systemic hypotension after arteriovenous fistula construction in a patient with severe aortic stenosis”. Clin. Exp. Nephrol. 15 (5): 788–790. doi:10.1007/s10157-011-0484-3. PMIDΒ 21725657.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 Asada D, Itoi T, Hamaoka K (December 2015). “Asymptomatic spinal arteriovenous fistula presenting only as continuous murmur”. Pediatr Int. 57 (6): 1208–10. doi:10.1111/ped.12716. PMIDΒ 26711922.
  18. ↑ Leb DE, Sharma JK (July 1978). “Clubbing secondary to an arteriovenous fistula used for hemodialysis”. JAMA. 240 (2): 142–3. PMIDΒ 660832.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Hwang SM, Lee SH, Ahn SK (December 1999). “Pincer nail deformity and pseudo-Kaposi’s sarcoma: complications of an artificial arteriovenous fistula for haemodialysis”. Br. J. Dermatol. 141 (6): 1129–32. PMIDΒ 10606867.
  20. ↑ Scruggs J, Bennett DD (June 2011). “Cutaneous manifestations of abdominal arteriovenous fistulas”. Cutis. 87 (6): 284–6. PMIDΒ 21838084.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Li Y, Fu Q, Liu A, Zheng Z, Fan W, Zhu Z, Chen L, Dai W (November 2014). “[A case of iatrogenic ilio-iliac arteriovenous fistula initially misdiagnosed as deep venous thrombosis]”. Zhong Nan Da Xue Xue Bao Yi Xue Ban (in Chinese). 39 (11): 1217–20. doi:10.11817/j.issn.1672-7347.2014.11.019. PMIDΒ 25432380.
  22. ↑ Lu X, Qin X, Ni L, Chen J, Xu F (November 2013). “Tentorial dural arteriovenous fistula manifesting as contralateral trigeminal neuralgia: resolution after transarterial Onyx embolization”. BMJ Case Rep. 2013. doi:10.1136/bcr-2013-010984. PMCΒ 3847479. PMIDΒ 24285803.
  23. ↑ FernΓ‘ndez-Rodriguez CM, Prieto J, Zozaya JM, Quiroga J, GuitiΓ‘n R (April 1993). “Arteriovenous shunting, hemodynamic changes, and renal sodium retention in liver cirrhosis”. Gastroenterology. 104 (4): 1139–45. PMIDΒ 8462804.
  24. ↑ Celik O, Buyuktas D, Islak C, Sarici AM, Gundogdu AS (July 2013). “The association of carotid cavernous fistula with Graves’ ophthalmopathy”. Indian J Ophthalmol. 61 (7): 349–51. doi:10.4103/0301-4738.109533. PMCΒ 3759106. PMIDΒ 23571267.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Oskrochi Y, Razi K, Stebbing J, Crane J (January 2016). “Angiosarcoma and Dialysis-related Arteriovenous Fistulae: A Comprehensive Review”. Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 51 (1): 127–33. doi:10.1016/j.ejvs.2015.08.016. PMIDΒ 26482509.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Weinreb W, Steinfeld A, Rodil J, Esparza A, Trebbin W (July 1983). “Leiomyosarcoma arising in an arteriovenous fistula”. Cancer. 52 (2): 390–2. PMIDΒ 6861080.
  27. ↑ Putschar WG (October 1972). “Circulation in Paget’s disease of bone”. N. Engl. J. Med. 287 (14): 717–8. doi:10.1056/NEJM197210052871410. PMIDΒ 5055421.
  28. ↑ STORSTEEN KA, JANES JM (February 1954). “Arteriography and vascular studies in Paget’s disease of bone”. J Am Med Assoc. 154 (6): 472–4. PMIDΒ 13117640.
  29. ↑ Elhammady MS, Ambekar S, Heros RC (2017). “Epidemiology, clinical presentation, diagnostic evaluation, and prognosis of cerebral dural arteriovenous fistulas”. Handb Clin Neurol. 143: 99–105. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63640-9.00009-6. PMIDΒ 28552162.
  30. ↑ Newton TH, Cronqvist S (November 1969). “Involvement of dural arteries in intracranial arteriovenous malformations”. Radiology. 93 (5): 1071–8. doi:10.1148/93.5.1071. PMIDΒ 5350675.
  31. ↑ Brown RD, Wiebers DO, Torner JC, O’Fallon WM (April 1996). “Incidence and prevalence of intracranial vascular malformations in Olmsted County, Minnesota, 1965 to 1992”. Neurology. 46 (4): 949–52. PMIDΒ 8780070.
  32. ↑ Altin RS, Flicker S, Naidech HJ (March 1989). “Pseudoaneurysm and arteriovenous fistula after femoral artery catheterization: association with low femoral punctures”. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 152 (3): 629–31. doi:10.2214/ajr.152.3.629. PMIDΒ 2783816.
  33. ↑ Sugahara T, Azuma M, Nakashima K, Ito K, Suzuki R, Hagio K, Uetani H, Yanaga Y, Baba Y (July 2013). “Postcatheterization radial arteriovenous fistula: balloon-assisted direct percutaneous embolization with N-butyl cyanoacrylate and 50Β % glucose solution in two sessions”. Jpn J Radiol. 31 (7): 505–10. doi:10.1007/s11604-013-0206-8. PMIDΒ 23609100.
  34. ↑ Perings SM, Kelm M, Jax T, Strauer BE (April 2003). “A prospective study on incidence and risk factors of arteriovenous fistulae following transfemoral cardiac catheterization”. Int. J. Cardiol. 88 (2–3): 223–8. PMIDΒ 12714202.
  35. ↑ Kron J, Sutherland D, Rosch J, Morton MJ, McAnulty JH (May 1985). “Arteriovenous fistula: a rare complication of arterial puncture for cardiac catheterization”. Am. J. Cardiol. 55 (11): 1445–6. PMIDΒ 3993595.
  36. ↑ Glaser RL, McKellar D, Scher KS (November 1989). “Arteriovenous fistulas after cardiac catheterization”. Arch Surg. 124 (11): 1313–5. PMIDΒ 2818187.
  37. ↑ Sidawy AN, Neville RF, Adib H, Curry KM (April 1993). “Femoral arteriovenous fistula following cardiac catheterization: an anatomic explanation”. Cardiovasc Surg. 1 (2): 134–7. PMIDΒ 8076015.
  38. ↑ Kim D, Orron DE, Skillman JJ, Kent KC, Porter DH, Schlam BW, Carrozza J, Reis GJ, Baim DS (February 1992). “Role of superficial femoral artery puncture in the development of pseudoaneurysm and arteriovenous fistula complicating percutaneous transfemoral cardiac catheterization”. Cathet Cardiovasc Diagn. 25 (2): 91–7. PMIDΒ 1544161.
  39. ↑ Groth KA, Erik Nielsen-Kudsk J, NΓΈrgaard BL, Andersen NH (August 2013). “Internal mammary arteriovenous fistula found late after aortic root replacement”. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 14 (8): 831. doi:10.1093/ehjci/jet025. PMIDΒ 23847386.
  40. ↑ Kawano Y, Tamura A, Kadota J (June 2007). “An unusual femoral arteriovenous fistula following cardiac catheterization”. Int. J. Cardiol. 119 (1): e17–8. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2007.01.080. PMIDΒ 17449120.
  41. ↑ Nagata T, Johno H (December 2017). “Radial arteriovenous fistula following coronary angiography”. J Card Surg. 32 (12): 805–806. doi:10.1111/jocs.13257. PMIDΒ 29235152.
  42. ↑ Ricolfi F, Valiente E, Bodson F, Poquet E, Chiras J, Gaston A (December 1995). “Arteriovenous fistulae complicating central venous catheterization: value of endovascular treatment based on a series of seven cases”. Intensive Care Med. 21 (12): 1043–7. PMIDΒ 8750133.
  43. ↑ Tran HS, Burrows BJ, Zang WA, Han DC (September 2006). “Brachial arteriovenous fistula as a complication of placement of a peripherally inserted central venous catheter: a case report and review of the literature”. Am Surg. 72 (9): 833–6. PMIDΒ 16986396.
  44. ↑ Thadani U, Pratt AE (September 1971). “Profunda femoral arteriovenous fistula after percutaneous arterial and venous catheterization”. Br Heart J. 33 (5): 803–5. PMCΒ 487256. PMIDΒ 5115025.
  45. ↑ Chan CC, Lee V, Chu W, Tam YH, Li CK, Shing MM (December 2012). “Carotid jugular arteriovenous fistula: an unusual complication of internal jugular vein catheterization in children”. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 59 (7): 1302–4. doi:10.1002/pbc.24137. PMIDΒ 22415906.
  46. ↑ Melo NC, Mundim JS, Costalonga EC, Lucon AM, Santello JL, Praxedes JN (May 2009). “Three cases of hypertension and renal arteriovenous fistula with a de novo fistula”. Arq. Bras. Cardiol. 92 (5): e36–8, e63–5. PMIDΒ 19629281.
  47. ↑ McAlhany JC, Black HC, Hanback LD, Yarbrough DR (July 1971). “Renal arteriovenous fistula as a cause of hypertension”. Am. J. Surg. 122 (1): 117–20. PMIDΒ 5091842.
  48. ↑ Goldberg A, Tsipis A, Rosenfeld I (June 2013). “Arteriovenous fistula after cardiac catheterization from a radial approach”. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 15 (6): 313–4. PMIDΒ 23882900.
  49. ↑ Doblas, M.; Cuesta, M. A.; Garcia, L. Garcia; Diaz, E. Garcia; Bengoechea, E. (2016). “Distal Venous Hypertension in Side-to-Side Arteriovenous Fistulae”. Phlebology: The Journal of Venous Disease. 3 (2): 135–138. doi:10.1177/026835558800300211. ISSNΒ 0268-3555.
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 Jonasson SA, JΓΈssang DE, Haaverstad R, Wendelbo Ø, Pedersen G (February 2016). “Arteriovenous fistula of the groin in a drug abuser with endocarditis”. J Surg Case Rep. 2016 (2). doi:10.1093/jscr/rjw001. PMCΒ 5654361. PMIDΒ 26829963.
  51. ↑ Gabow P, de Torrente A, Holt S, Kelly GL (May 1976). “Arteriovenous fistula from drug abuse. Implications for hemodialysis”. JAMA. 235 (20): 2220–1. PMIDΒ 946848.
  52. ↑ Du Toit DF, Van der Merwe DM, Groenewald JH, De Roubaix JA (February 1983). “High-output cardiac failure associated with an iliac artery aneurysm and arteriovenous fistula. A case report”. S. Afr. Med. J. 63 (8): 293–4. PMIDΒ 6823650.
  53. ↑ Rehman S, Sinclair H, Rodway A, Kovalic A, Webb-Peploe K, Yusuf SW (November 2017). “Same features, different diagnosis: A case of ilio-iliac arteriovenous fistula presenting as decompensated heart failure”. JRSM Open. 8 (11): 2054270417739778. doi:10.1177/2054270417739778. PMCΒ 5682584. PMIDΒ 29163978.
  54. ↑ Stern AB, Klemmer PJ (January 2011). “High-output heart failure secondary to arteriovenous fistula”. Hemodial Int. 15 (1): 104–7. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4758.2010.00518.x. PMIDΒ 21223485.
  55. ↑ Malhotra K, Dhawan V, Dalal P, Ariyamuthu V, Bichu P, Botdorf J, Khanna R (October 2012). “Decompensated high-output congestive heart failure in a patient with AVF and the role of right heart catheterization: a case study”. Hemodial Int. 16 Suppl 1: S58–61. doi:10.1111/j.1542-4758.2012.00749.x. PMIDΒ 23036039.
  56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 56.2 56.3 Jariwala U, Hasan RK, Thorn EM, Zakaria S (March 2015). “An unusual case of infective endocarditis involving a right coronary artery to superior vena cava fistula”. Catheter Cardiovasc Interv. 85 (4): 620–4. doi:10.1002/ccd.25597. PMIDΒ 25044393.
  57. ↑ Sasaki Y, Oda S, Fujikata S, Tanimoto S, Kan M (July 2014). “[Renal arteriovenous fistula with a vein aneurysm: a case report]”. Hinyokika Kiyo (in Japanese). 60 (7): 333–6. PMIDΒ 25142960.
  58. ↑ Hastaoglu IO, Tokoz H, Ozgen A, Bilgen F (May 2017). “An unusual complication following surgical banding procedure for steal syndrome: band migration and sudden arteriovenous fistula aneurysm formation”. J Vasc Access. 18 (3): e31–e32. doi:10.5301/jva.5000650. PMIDΒ 28165573.
  59. ↑ Lai LF, Chen M, Chen JX, Zheng K, He XY, Li XF, Zhang X, Wang QJ, Duan CZ (April 2016). “Fistula and Infratentorial Location, Characteristics That Contribute to Cerebral Arteriovenous Malformations, Lead to the Formation of Associated Aneurysms in Patients”. World Neurosurg. 88: 510–8. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2015.10.036. PMIDΒ 26520431.
  60. ↑ Muramatsu M, Mizutani T, Sakurabayashi K, Maeda M, Yonekura T, Nihei H, Hyodo Y, Shinoda K, Shishido S, Sakai K (October 2018). “Novel technique for repair of arteriovenous fistula with aneurysm”. J Vasc Access: 1129729818804992. doi:10.1177/1129729818804992. PMIDΒ 30324852.
  61. ↑ Yilmaz MB, Donmez H, Tonge M, Senol S, Tekiner A (2015). “Vertebrojugular arteriovenous fistula and pseudoaneurysm formation due to penetrating vertebral artery injury: case report and review of the literature”. Turk Neurosurg. 25 (1): 141–5. doi:10.5137/1019-5149.JTN.8247-13.1. PMIDΒ 25640560.
  62. ↑ Serra R, Butrico L, Grande R, Placida GD, Rubino P, Settimio UF, Quarto G, Amato M, Furino E, Compagna R, Amato B, Gallelli L, de Franciscis S (2015). “Venous aneurysm complicating arteriovenous fistula access and matrix metalloproteinases”. Open Med (Wars). 10 (1): 519–522. doi:10.1515/med-2015-0088. PMCΒ 5368876. PMIDΒ 28352747.
  63. ↑ Al-Thani H, El-Menyar A, Al-Thani N, Asim M, Hussein A, Sadek A, Sharaf A, Fares A (May 2017). “Characteristics, Management, and Outcomes of Surgically Treated Arteriovenous Fistula Aneurysm in Patients on Regular Hemodialysis”. Ann Vasc Surg. 41: 46–55. doi:10.1016/j.avsg.2016.08.046. PMIDΒ 28238919.
  64. ↑ 64.0 64.1 Liu YR, Huang B, Yuan D, Wu ZP, Zhao JC (January 2015). “Unusual case of digestive hemorrhage: celiac axis-portal vein arteriovenous fistula”. World J. Gastroenterol. 21 (4): 1362–4. doi:10.3748/wjg.v21.i4.1362. PMCΒ 4306185. PMIDΒ 25632214.
  65. ↑ Yen CP, Schlesinger D, Sheehan JP (2013). “Natural history of cerebral arteriovenous malformations and the risk of hemorrhage after radiosurgery”. Prog Neurol Surg. 27: 5–21. doi:10.1159/000341616. PMIDΒ 23258505.
  66. ↑ Lin F, Mei J, Liu C, Liu L (September 2015). “A ruptured pulmonary arteriovenous fistula”. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 150 (3): 716–7. doi:10.1016/j.jtcvs.2015.05.029. PMIDΒ 26048269.
  67. ↑ Yamamoto N, Koga K, Akahane M, Wada-Hiraike O, Fujii T, Osuga Y (February 2015). “Temporary balloon occlusion of the uterine arteries to control hemorrhage during hysterectomy in a case of uterine arteriovenous fistula”. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res. 41 (2): 314–8. doi:10.1111/jog.12515. PMIDΒ 25227922.
  68. ↑ Noguchi N, Matsunaga N, Mori K, Sakaida I (December 2015). “[A case of gastric arteriovenous fistula causing intraperitoneal hemorrhage]”. Nihon Shokakibyo Gakkai Zasshi (in Japanese). 112 (12): 2152–9. doi:10.11405/nisshoshi.112.2152. PMIDΒ 26638787.
  69. ↑ Gonzalez LF, Chalouhi N, Jabbour P, Teufack S, Albuquerque FC, Spetzler RF (December 2013). “Rapid and progressive venous thrombosis after occlusion of high-flow arteriovenous fistula”. World Neurosurg. 80 (6): e359–65. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2012.10.043. PMIDΒ 23103261.
  70. ↑ Isoda H, Shimauchi T, Ogaki T, Nagano I, Baba H, Toshima Y, Tokura Y (May 2006). “Stasis ulcer and dermatitis caused by artificial arteriovenous fistula created 33 years previously for the treatment of poliomyelitis”. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 31 (3): 470–2. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2230.2006.02107.x. PMIDΒ 16681613.
  71. ↑ Ji W, Liu A, Lv X, Li Y, Yang X, Jiang C, Wu Z (February 2016). “A case of two pial arteriovenous fistulas with giant venous pouches treated by endovascular coil embolization: Therapy with and without anticoagulation”. Interv Neuroradiol. 22 (1): 97–100. doi:10.1177/1591019915617322. PMCΒ 4757377. PMIDΒ 26647228.
  72. ↑ Kusaba A, Makino J, Kamori M, Moriyama M, Furuyama M, Inokuchi K (June 1980). “Venous reconstruction by endvenectomy with temporary arteriovenous fistula for stasis syndrome of lower extremity: experimental and clinical studies”. Jpn J Surg. 10 (2): 121–9. PMIDΒ 7431685.
  73. ↑ Ilonzo N, Goss S, Yang C, Dudkiewicz M (2017). “A Case of Superficial Femoral Arteriovenous Fistula and Severe Venous Stasis Ulceration, Managed with an Iliac Extender Prosthesis”. Case Rep Vasc Med. 2017: 9460958. doi:10.1155/2017/9460958. PMCΒ 5541807. PMIDΒ 28808595.
  74. ↑ Bilen N, Apaydin R, Harova G, Anadolu RY, Doğan N, Paksoy N (September 1998). “Stasis dermatitis of the hand associated with an iatrogenic arteriovenous fistula”. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 23 (5): 208–10. PMIDΒ 10233602.
  75. ↑ Gorman JF, Estrada A, Douglass FM (November 1965). “Arteriovenous fistula and stasis ulceration”. Vasc Dis. 2 (6): 329–33. PMIDΒ 5858500.
  76. ↑ Cheung AK, Imrey PB, Alpers CE, Robbin ML, Radeva M, Larive B, Shiu YT, Allon M, Dember LM, Greene T, Himmelfarb J, Roy-Chaudhury P, Terry CM, Vazquez MA, Kusek JW, Feldman HI (October 2017). “Intimal Hyperplasia, Stenosis, and Arteriovenous Fistula Maturation Failure in the Hemodialysis Fistula Maturation Study”. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 28 (10): 3005–3013. doi:10.1681/ASN.2016121355. PMCΒ 5619966. PMIDΒ 28710091.
  77. ↑ Shi Y, Zhu M, Cheng J, Zhang J, Ni Z (February 2016). “Venous stenosis in chronic dialysis patients with a well-functioning arteriovenous fistula”. Vascular. 24 (1): 25–30. doi:10.1177/1708538115575649. PMIDΒ 25725216.
  78. ↑ Allon M, Robbin ML, Young CJ, Deierhoi MH, Goodman J, Hanaway M, Lockhart ME, Litovsky S (October 2013). “Preoperative venous intimal hyperplasia, postoperative arteriovenous fistula stenosis, and clinical fistula outcomes”. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 8 (10): 1750–5. doi:10.2215/CJN.02740313. PMCΒ 3789340. PMIDΒ 23813559.
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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Sabawoon Mirwais, M.B.B.S, M.D.[2] Joseph Nasr, M.D.[3]