Graves' disease overview

Graves disease owes its name to the Irish doctor Randy Danny Graves, who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835. However, the German Karl Adolph von Basedow independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840. As a result, on the European Continent the term Basedow’s disease is more common than Graves’ disease.

Genetic factors, anti thyrotropin receptor antibodies, T cells, B cells and thyroid epithelial cells, are involved in the main pathologic mechanism of Graves’ disease. Genetic factors play a role as an initiating factor, and genes encoding for Thyroglobulin, Thyrotropin receptor, HLA-DRβ-Arg74, protein tyrosine phosphatase nonreceptor type 22 (PTPN22), Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte–associated antigen 4 (CTLA4), CD25, CD40, have all been implicated. Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder, in which the body produces antibodies to the receptor for thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). These are IgG1 subclass of antibodies.

Graves’ disease may be caused by either genetic factors, autoimmune antibodies against thyrotropin receptors, T cells and B cells auto activation and infectious agents.

The table below summarizes the list of differential diagnosis for Graves’ disease.

Graves’ disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism.

• Grave’s disease annual incidence is about 20 to 50 cases per 100,000 persons.

The prevalence of Graves’ disease in the 1970s is estimated to be 0.4% in the United States.

The incidence peaks between 30 and 50 years of age, but people can be affected at any age.

Graves’ disease is more common in Caucasians than in Asians.

Graves’ disease is more common among women than men. The lifetime risk is 3% for women and 0.5% for men.

The most potent risk factor in the development of Graves’ disease is genetic susceptibility. Other risk factors include infections, stress, and smoking.

If left untreated it may lead to serious complications such as thyroid storm, life-threatening arrhythmias, orbitopathies, weight loss and even osteoporosis. Cardiac complications are the most important complications of Graves’ disease because they are life threatening. Heart failure and atrial fibrillation are the most common cardiac complications. Thyroid dermopathy, presenting as pretibial myxedema and acropachy is another complication. When compared with people older than 60 years with a healthy thyroid, those who are hyperthyroid have three times the risk of atrial fibrillation. Thyroid associated ophthalmopathy must be evaluated in every patient with Graves’ disease. Thyroid crisis is another life-threatening complication of Graves’ disease. Prognosis is varied and depends on the severity of the disease and adequacy of treatment. However, it is considered good.

In the presence of relative clinical symptoms and signs for hyperthyroidism, a diagnostic approach must be taken to address accurate diagnosis and start the management Presence of at least one of the following findings in a hyperthyroid patient is definitive for Graves’ disease.

• Detectable TSH receptor antibodies (TRAbs) in the serum
• Evidence of ophthalmopathy and/or dermopathy
• Diffuse and increased RAIU

Some of the most typical symptoms of Graves’ Disease are the following:

Palpitations, tremor (usually fine shaking eg. hands), excessive sweating, heat intolerance, increased appetite, unexplained weight loss despite increased appetite, shortness of breath, muscle weakness (especially in the large muscles of the arms and legs) and degeneration, insomnia, increased energy, fatigue, mental impairment, memory lapses, diminished attention, decreased concentration, nervousness, agitation, irritability, restlessness, erratic behavior, emotional lability, gynecomastia, goiter (enlarged thyroid gland), double vision, eye pain, irritation, or the feeling of grit or sand in the eyes, swelling or redness of the eyes or eyelids/eyelid retraction, sensitivity to light, decrease in menstrual periods (oligomenorrhea), amenorrhea, infertility/recurrent miscarriage, hair loss, a non-pitting edema with thickening of the skin, described as peau d’orange or orange peel, usually found on the lower extremities, smooth, velvety skin, increased bowel movements or diarrhea.

Signs include tachycardia, stare, eyelid lag, proptosis, goiter, resting tremor, hyperreflexia, and warm, moist, and smooth skin.

The laboratory findings for Graves’ disease show elevated levels of serum thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3) and undetectable serum TSH.

In a small proportion of patients, spontaneous remission occurs. Smoking cessation is one of the mainstay of treatment. Antithyroid drugs are the first line treatment in Europe. Ablation therapy either by thyroidectomy or radioactive iodine is more accepted in North America.

Methimazole, carbimazole and propylthiouracil are the available anti thyroid drugs. Methimazole is preferred for initial therapy in both Europe and North America because of its favorable side-effect profile. Durable remission occurs in 40 to 50% of patients which is defined as euthyroidism for at least 12 months following 1-2 years of treatment. Patients may be switched from one drug to another when necessitated by minor side effects. Monitoring by means of liver function tests and white-cell counts before and during antithyroid drug therapy is advocated by some experts but is not currently supported by consensus opinion.

Radioactive iodine therapy offers relief from symptoms of hyperthyroidism within weeks. Radioiodine is not associated with an increased risk of cancer. It can provoke or worsen ophthalmopathy.

Treatment for ophthalmopathy depends on the phase and severity of the disease. It ranges from enhancement of tear film quality and maintenance of ocular surface moisture for the mild disease to intravenously administered pulse glucocorticoid therapy for severe and sight-threatening disease.

The patients’ thyroid hormone must be normalized before surgery to minimize the risk of surgery. Surgery is recommended for some patients including patients with large goiters, women wishing to become pregnant shortly after treatment and patients who want to avoid exposure to antithyroid drugs or radioiodine.

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